Organic vs Non-Organic Essay Example for Free

Organic vs Non-Organic Essay What should I eat? That is the question on millions of American minds in the recent years. For years we have fallen for hype, forgoing one food type in favor of another, only to hear months or years later were doing it all wrong. More recently, the nations attention has turned to organic foods in our quest to eat healthy, get slim and live a long and active life. Pesticides, websites and newspapers warn, are leading to an unhealthy America. The use of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, otherwise known as DDT, is brought up time and time again. Prior to 1973, the use of DDT was widespread and our main weapon against the war on pests. We now know the use of DDT led to massive effects on wildlife and humans (DDT- a Brief History, 2012). Who’s to say one of the many other pesticides and insecticides we spray today won’t take a similar turn down the road, articles ask? While it’s true any pesticide we use in traditional farming can lead to health problems in humans if consistently exposed, safeguards are put in place and testing is standardized by the United States government to prevent illness and death from the foods we eat. The same cannot be said about organic produce and meat. Organic foods do not have to withstand the same amount of rigorous testing as non-organic and what testing does take place is not even standardized (Tenser, 2013). This can lead to an increased threat of health problems for those who thought they were making the healthier choice. Studies have shown there is no real significant advantage, health wise, in choosing organic over non-organic and that label, and the higher price that accompanies, might not actually be worth it. Proponents of organic foods say they are free from pesticides and hormones used by companies to produce larger animals faster, thus leading to increased profits. Several of the pesticides used today have come under scrutiny of regulatory agencies. More of the vitamins and complex micro nutrients our bodies need to survive are retained when synthetic pesticides are not used. Using natural and biological pest control, organic foods are safer and a healthier alternative to commercialized fruits and vegetables. In actuality, it’s all a myth. There is no organic product on the market today that is free of synthetic pesticides. Over the years, the soil has retained some of the pesticide runoff, which keeps all foods today from being completely free of chemicals (Hom, 1992). The increase in manure usage that accompanies the shunning of synthetic fertilizers leads to an increased risk of E. coli and Salmonella outbreaks (Griswald, 2013, p. 1). This is because manure consists of a greater amount of bacteria and its use runs the risk of cross contamination. The rise in organic farming has led to many of the food borne illnesses that plagued much of the 2000s. The use of hormones is grossly overstated; commercial chicken is not injected with hormones, contrary to what organic food suppliers want you to believe. The use of hormones does nothing to help the chicken become larger or grow faster. Hormone use would simply be a waste of money since no profit is gained from it (Poultry Housing Tips, 2012). In regards to the argument fruits and vegetables grown organically have more of the vitamins and nutrients retained in them, this is true, however a person focused on a well-rounded and healthy diet has no fear of missing certain nutrients their body needs. Not to mention, often times a scrubbing of soap and water cleans off all pesticide residue from any fruits and vegetables you are going to enjoy. If you can afford them, buy them, recommends New York University professor Marion Nestle, PhD (Zelman, n. d. ). Spending a few dollars more for that organic chicken will save mountains of hospital bills down the road, organic food marketers say. Consumers of organic foods spend on average $4000 more a year, convinced the extra expenditure is well worth it in the long run. Also, by spending more, youre told you’re helping save the environment; by not using synthetic pesticides the soil and streams cannot be contaminated. It is true a lean toward more organic farming leads to a more stable growing environment and an increase of local food production (Berger, 2013, p. 1). Still, organic foods are often trucked across state lines to groceries throughout the country. What the use of natural agents saves environmentally is canceled out by the exhaust spewed into the atmosphere and the fossil fuels used during the journey. The cost of organic foods is just not worth the payout. There have been many studies showing there is no real health benefit to eating organic foods (Watson, 2008). Fruits such as bananas and oranges and vegetables such as peas are not eaten whole; they require peeling which means they require less pesticide, meaning the higher price tag on the organic bananas just aren’t worth it. And as the price of organics rises, organics are seen as a status symbol, an â€Å"elitist stratification. † Organic food marketers capitalize on the class divide, marketing organics as a way to lead the beautiful, healthy life of the wealthy. They stress organics are healthier, better, worth the cost (Sprague, 2013, p 1). This is just simply not the case. A well rounded diet is all anyone needs to stay healthy and lead an active life. With this in mind, the higher price tag is just not worth the hype. It has been shown time and time again that organic foods do not have a greater health benefit compared to commercial foods. The label doesnt justify breaking the bank. A well rounded diet is just as beneficial to a healthy society, with or without the use of synthetic pesticides. Organic foods are not the guiding light they claim to be. There is one tried and true method to end most health concerns. Eat a varied diet. Getting all the vitamins and nutrition you need is up to you, not up to a label. References Berger, A. (2013). Organic foods are a healthier alternative. In Points of view reference center (p. 2). Retrieved from http://web. ebscohost. com. proxy. devry. edu/pov/ detail? sid=9b34ea84-d9c3-4c4a-8cf5- 2fe5b8ae172f%40sessionmgr112vid=1hid=113bda ta=JnNpdGU9cG92LWxpdmU%3d#db=pwhAN=43286303 DDT- A brief history and status. (2012, May 9). Retrieved May 25, 2013, from http://www. epa. gov/pesticides/factsheets/chemicals/ddt-brief-history-status. htm Griswald, A. (2013). Organic food: Overview. In Points of view reference center (p. 1). Retrieved from http://web. ebscohost. com. proxy. devry. edu/pov/ detail? sid=e32326f0-2d1a-4489-9176-71e40074d5be%40sessionmgr113vid=1hid=113bda ta=JnNpdGU9cG92LWxpdmU%3d#db=pwhAN=43286302 Hom, L. (1992). About organic produce. Retrieved May 25, 2013, from http://www. ocf. berkeley. edu/~lhom/organictext. html Poultry housing tips. (2012, April). Retrieved May 25, 2013, from The University of Georgia website: http://www. poultryventilation. com/sites/default/files/ tips/2012/vol24n4. pdf Sprague, N. (2013). Organic food is unnecessary and the current food.

Comment The Five Minds of a Manager Essay Example for Free

Comment The Five Minds of a Manager Essay The Five Minds of a Manager the five aspects of the managerial mind—has proved not only powerful in the classroom but insightful in practice, as we hope to demonstrate in this article. We’ll first explain how we came up with the five managerial mind-sets, then we’ll discuss each in some depth before concluding with the case for interweaving the five. The Five Managerial Mind-Sets Jonathan Gosling is the director of the Centre for Leadership Studies at the University of Exeter in Exeter, England. Henry Mintzberg is the Cleghorn Professor of Management Studies at McGill University in Montreal and the author of the forthcoming book Managers Not MBAs from Berrett-Koehler. The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, headquartered in Geneva, has a management development concern. It worries that it may be drifting too far toward a fast-action culture. It knows that it must act quickly in responding to disasters everywhere—earthquakes and wars, floods and famines—but it also sees the need to engage in the slower, more delicate task of building a capacity for action that is careful, thoughtful, and tailored to local conditions and needs. Many business organizations face a similar problem—they know how to execute, but they are not so adept at stepping back to reflect on their situations. Others face the opposite predicament: They get so mired in thinking about their problems that they can’t get things done fast enough. We all know bureaucracies that are great at planning and organizing but slow to respond to market forces, just as we’re all acquainted with the nimble companies that react to every stimulus, but sloppily, and have to be constantly fixing things. And then, of course, there are those that suffer from both afflictions—for example, firms whose marketing departments are absorbed with grand positioning statements while their sales forces chase every possible deal. Those two aspects establish the bounds of management: Everything that every effective manager does is sandwiched between action on the ground and reflection in the abstract. Action without reflection is thoughtless; reflection without action is passive. Every manager has to find a way to combine these two mindsets—to function at the point where reflective thinking meets practical doing. But action and reflection about what? One obvious answer is: about collaboration, about getting things done cooperatively with other people—in negotiations, for example, where a manager cannot act alone. Another answer is that action, reflection, and collaboration have to be rooted in a deep appreciation of reality harvard business review †¢ november 2003 in all its facets. We call this mind-set worldly, which the Oxford English Dictionary defines as â€Å"experienced in life, sophisticated, practical. † Finally, action, reflection, and collaboration, as well as worldliness, must subscribe to a certain rationality or logic; they rely on an analytic mind-set, too. So we have five sets of the managerial mind, five ways in which managers interpret and deal with the world around them. Each has a dominant subject, or target, of its own. For reflection, the subject is the self; there can be no insight without self-knowledge. Collaboration takes the subject beyond the self, into the manager’s network of relationships. Analysis goes a step beyond that, to the organization; organizations depend on the systematic decomposition of activities, and that’s what analysis is all about. Beyond the organization lies what we consider the subject of the worldly mind-set, namely context—the worlds around the organization. Finally, the action mind-set pulls everything together through the process of change—in self, relationships, organization, and context. The practice of managing, then, involves five perspectives, which correspond to the five modules of our program: †¢ Managing self: the reflective mind-set †¢ Managing organizations: the analytic mind-set †¢ Managing context: the worldly mind-set †¢ Managing relationships: the collaborative mind-set †¢ Managing change: the action mind-set If you are a manager, this is your world! Let us make clear several characteristics of this set of sets. First, we make no claim that our framework is either scientific or comprehensive. It simply has proved useful in our work with managers, including in our master’s program. (For more on the program, see the sidebar â€Å"Mind-Sets for Management Development. †) Second, we ask you to consider each of these managerial mind-sets as an attitude, a frame of mind that opens new vistas. Unless you get into a reflective frame of mind, for example, you cannot open yourself to new ideas. You might not even notice such ideas in the first place without a worldly frame of mind. And, of course, you cannot appreciate the buzz, the vistas, and the opportunities of actions unless you engage in them. Third, a word on our word â€Å"mind-sets. † We page 2 The Five Minds of a Manager do not use it to set any manager’s mind. All of us have had more than enough of that. Rather, we use the word in the spirit of a fortune one of us happened to pull out of a Chinese cookie recently: â€Å"Get your mind set. Confidence will lead you on. † We ask you to get your mind set around five key ideas. Then, not just confidence but coherence can lead you on. Think, too, of these mind-sets as mind-sights—perspectives. But be aware that, improperly used, they can also be mine sites. Too much of any of them—obsessive analyzing or compulsive collaborating, for instance—and the mind-set can blow up in your face. Managing Self: The Reflective Mind-Set Managers who are sent off to development courses these days often find themselves being welcomed to â€Å"boot camp. † This is no country club, they are warned; you’ll have to work hard. But this is wrongheaded. While managers certainly don’t need a country club atmosphere for development, neither do they need boot camp. Most managers we know already live boot camp every day. Besides, in real boot camps, soldiers learn to march and obey, not to stop and think. These days, what managers desperately need is to stop and think, to step back and reflect thoughtfully on their experiences. Indeed, in his book Rules for Radicals, Saul Alinsky makes the interesting point that events, or â€Å"happenings,† become experience only after they have been reflected upon thoughtfully: â€Å"Most people do not accumulate a body of experience. Most people go through life undergoing a series of happenings, which pass through their systems undigested. Happenings become experiences when they are digested, when they are reflected on, related to general patterns, and synthesized. † Unless the meaning is understood, managing is mindless. Hence we take reflection to be that space suspended between experience and explanation, where the mind makes the connections. Imagine yourself in a meeting when someone suddenly erupts with a personal rant. You’re tempted to ignore or dismiss the outburst—you’ve heard, after all, that the person is having problems at home. But why not use it to reflect on your own reaction—whether em- Mind-Sets for Management Development In 1996, when we founded the International Masters Program in Practicing Management with colleagues from around the world, we developed the managerial mind-sets as a new way to structure management education and development. Managers are sent to the IMPM by their companies, preferably in groups of four or five. They stay on the job, coming into our classrooms for five modules of two weeks each, one for each of the mindsets, over a period of 16 months. We open with a module on the reflective mind-set. The module is located at Lancaster University in the reflective atmosphere of northern England—the nearby hills and lakes inspire reflection on the purpose of life and work. Then it is on to McGill University in Montreal, where the grid-like regularity of the city reflects the energy and order of the analytic mind-set. The worldly mind-set on context comes alive at the Indian Institute of Management in Bangalore, where new technologies jostle ancient traditions on the crowded streets. Then comes the collabora- harvard business review †¢ november 2003 tive mind-set, hosted by faculty in Japan, where collaboration has been the key to managerial innovations, and Korea, where alliances and partnerships have become the basis for business growth. Last is the action mind-set module, located at Insead in France, where emerging trends from around the world convert into lessons for managerial action. So our locations not only teach the mindsets but also encourage the participating managers to live them. And so have we, in the very conception of the program. Our approach to management development is fundamentally reflective. We believe managers need to step back from the pressures of their jobs and reflect thoughtfully on their experiences. We as faculty members bring concepts; the participants bring experience. Learning occurs where these meet—in individual heads, small groups, and all together. Our 50-50 rule says that half the classroom time should be turned over to the participants, on their agendas. The program is fully collaborative all around. There is no lead school; much of the organizational responsibility is distributed. Likewise, the faculty’s relationship with the participants is collaborative. And faculty members work closely with the participating companies, which over the past eight years have included Alcan, BT, EDF Group and Gaz de France, Fujitsu, the International Red Cross Federation, LG, Lufthansa, Matsushita, Motorola, Royal Bank of Canada, and Zeneca. We think of our setting as being especially worldly, because the participating managers and faculty host their colleagues at home, in their own cultures, and are guests abroad. We also believe that the program’s reflective orientation allows us to probe into analysis more deeply than in regular education and work. Finally, our own purpose is action: We seek fundamental change in management education worldwide—to help change business schools into true schools of management. page 3 The Five Minds of a Manager These days, what managers desperately need is to stop and think—to step back and reflect thoughtfully on their experiences. barrassment, anger, or frustration—and so recognize some comparable feelings in yourself? Your own reaction now becomes a learning experience for you: You have opened a space for imagination, between your experience and your explanation. It can make all the difference. Organizations may not need â€Å"mirror people,† who see in everything only reflections of their own behavior. But neither do they need â€Å"window people,† who cannot see beyond the images in front of them. They need managers who see both ways—in a sense, ones who look out the window at dawn, to see through their own reflections to the awakening world outside. â€Å"Reflect† in Latin means to refold, which suggests that attention turns inward so that it can be turned outward. This means going beyond introspection. It means looking in so that you can better see out in order to perceive a familiar thing in a different way—a product as a service, maybe, or a customer as a partner. Does that not describe the thinking of the really successful managers, the Andy Groves of the world? Compare such people with the Messiers and Lays, who dazzle with great mergers and grand strategies before burning out their companies. Likewise, reflective managers are able to see behind in order to look ahead. Successful â€Å"visions† are not immaculately conceived; they are painted, stroke by stroke, out of the experiences of the past. Reflective managers, in other words, have a healthy respect for history—not just the grand history of deals and disasters but also the everyday history of all the little actions that make organizations work. Consider in this regard Kofi Annan’s deep personal understanding of the United Nations, a comprehension that has been the source of his ability to help move that complex body to a different and better place. You must appreciate the past if you wish to use the present to get to a better future.

Reviewing The Concept Analysis Of Hope Nursing Essay

Reviewing The Concept Analysis Of Hope Nursing Essay Hope is a fundamental human reaction which assists the individual to foster his life forward, with confidence. In healthcare, hope has been incorporated into the concept of caring (Mayeroff, 1971, p.43). While providing care the nurse deals with various aspects of human life such as physical, psychological and spiritual. So, it is essential to explore the term hope and its relevance in nursing practice. The different perspectives of hope and its relation in nursing practice will be identified in this assignment. Moreover, its application in nursing care as well as the possible issues which can come across when it is applied will also be discussed in this piece of work. Definitions of hope In the old axiom, where theres a hope, theres a life , illustrates that hope is the inspiring power that assists the people to live in present as well as in future. In every walk of life, the spark of hope will facilitate the person to live with greater satisfaction. The term hope comes from Latin root speare meaning to hope. When it is used as a noun, it is a feeling that what one desires will happen. But in terms of verb it is a belief in fulfillment (Stephenson, 1991). There are different perceptions of hope which can be found by reviewing the literature. Miller and Happel (2006) stated that hope is a state of being characterized by expectation for a continued good state, an improved state, or a release from a perceived entrapment. Therefore, the concept anticipation may or may not be found on concrete, real world evidence however, it is based on future expectation which is good. Moreover, hopefulness aids an individual to have a sense of psychological well being as well as to fin d out the purpose and meaning of their life in order to feel their perception which can be achieved in future. Expecting the wellness in future will help the individual to sustain in their life. This expectation could be changed if one has a flexible perception which in turn helps him to adjust with the situation and promoting the capability by improving confidence and psychological wellness which makes a sense of possibility. Hope is also defined as a process, an adventure, a going forward with confidence (Menninger, 1959).In this concept hope is considered as an active process where it deals with persons enduring feelings, actions and relationship which enhances an individual to look forward with confidence. Stephenson (1991) identified hope as a process of anticipation that involves relationship in thinking, acting, and feeling and directed towards the future fulfillment. In this context, the author states that ones life is purposeful when he achieves what he desired. This can be attained by active thinking and connecting it to the feelings. Furthermore, by evaluating the concept of hope, there can be four characteristics evolved, primarily life is valued once the individual gives importance to hope, secondly the hope includes various processes like thoughts, emotions, attitudes and its relationship within the individual. Since hope is future focused the third and fourth attributes consist of present and past experiences of the individual, which also can assist him to expect positive outcome. Farran et al. (1995) concluded the main four components of hope as: The hope is an experimental process of accepting human trials as a part of being human, while allowing imaginative possibilities to occur. Secondly, it is a spiritual /transcends process related with ones faith. Moreover, hoping is a rational thought process based on ones condition linked with reality and needed resources (physical, emotional and social).Finally, it is also considered as a relational p rocess in that hope occur between persons and is influenced by others hope, presence, communications and strength. From the above point of view, when a person confronts tough periods in his life, he can expect something which can bring change in that period. In another view, the hope has a union with faith. During crisis situation, spirituality support a person something to expect good to happen and also strengthen him to be optimistic in his life. Besides, a balanced thinking process brings the perception of hope to the reality. In addition, hope is also a relational process. For instance, if a terminally ill individual shows hopeful thoughts, that will encourage him and also others to cope up with that situation. The concept of hope is also related to endurance, uncertainty, suffering and acceptance (Morse and Penrod, 1999). Therefore, hope is multidimensional with different perspectives like feeling good, confident, spiritual that can comfort the person during threatening situati ons of his present life and encourage him to believe in future expectations. Relevance of hope in nursing practice Hope and caring are interrelated with each other and are considered as an inevitable part in health care practices since hope aids in providing optimal care to the patient. The Pioneer of nursing, Florence Nightingale who walked with the lamp in dark corridors and spread hope and light to the patient explains obviously that the nurse also can bring light as well as hope to the patients life (Hammer e t al.1998). Thus, hope plays its own role in nursing practice. Fostering hope is one of the aspects of the professional nurses role (Roberts, 1978, p.28). It states that the nurse and hope have union in providing nursing care. According to Hammer et al. (2009) hope can be instilled through encouragement and caregivers positive attitude, confidence and confirmative relationship. A good and positive approach of a care giver can elicit the pain and suffering of patient with incurable disease. A meaningful interpersonal relationship enables the nurse to explore more about patients level of u nderstanding and hope in their disease condition. This will further help in giving care to the patient. The feeling of hopefulness can be felt when a nurse or caregiver dispose an appropriate atmosphere (Travelbee, 1997, p.47). According to the above statement, a suitable environment can be provided through effective communication which inspires the patient and his relatives to answer their problem, especially in palliative care (Twcross, 2003, p. 17). In rehabilitation set up, a nurse who cares the patient set a realistic goal with the cooperation of the patient. This will be helpful in restoring and maintaining hope. Setting goal is an integral part of caring for patient with an incurable disease. According to McCann (2002) in a geriatric care, a nurse who spares time to listen to the patient, their explanation, politeness and helping attitudes like just being there, expressing honesty and respect towards patient can bring a positive outcome. It means patient need to feel trust, c onnections and closeness with others. Nurses can achieve this by showing concern towards their patients. Hope also adds quality to life of older people and brings the patient out with a fighting spirit. In addition hope is a fuel that can accelerate the healing process (Visintainer and Seligman, 1983). Nurses have to primarily find out the significance of hope while handling chronically and terminally ill people. Nurses role is not only limited to provide care during illness but also to ensure the well being of the patient. Davison and Simpson (2006) concluded that there may arise certain obstacles in the application of hope in nursing. They include information (more, lack, early), fear, caring a child, caring terminally ill and psychiatric patient, lack of professional and administrative force can hinder a nurse to apply concept of hope in nursing practice. First of all, knowledge about the disease process withdraws a patient to cooperate with the treatment. For example, the termin ally ill patient may hesitate to take medication because they do not have hope in their life. Secondly, the nurse who lacks the knowledge about the treatment and disease process will not be able to inspire hope to the patient. According to Miller (2007) the medical conditions such as pain, uncontrollable symptoms, and social isolation cannot allow a nurse to give hope to the patient. During this suffering even though nurse provide pain medications or other comfort measures to alleviate discomfort of the patient with incurable illness, nurses cannot be able to inspire hope. This will be another barrier. Furthermore, the patient with psychiatric illness and unrealistic hope is other area of concern. It will be a challenging task for a nurse when those people are taken for futile therapies which increase a persons suffering (Taylor, 1989, p.26). Moreover, nurses may feel difficulty when the patient is a dying child (Miller, 2007). The lack of sufficient staffing can be another reason w here the nurse will not be able to attend to all aspect of care of the patient. So, it is important for a nurse to understand significance of this concept and barrier in the provision of care delivery. Conclusion To sum up, the concept of hope has been analysed through common definitions and its characteristics in this assignment. In addition, its significance in nursing practice as well as the possible barriers which can hinder its application in nursing care has been identified in this piece of work. It is evident from the above analysis that hope plays an important role in lives of human being insurmountable obstacles. Knowing the concept hope will be valuable in enhancing the professional capacity of nurses to engage with an individual for whom hope is considered as fragile and recovery is impossible. Besides it also helps a nurse to deliver complete nursing care to the patient. Word count:1550

Biography of Emily Dickinson :: essays research papers

Biography Text One of the finest lyric poets in the English language, the American poet Emily Dickinson (1830-1886) was a keen observer of nature and a wise interpreter of human passion. Her family and friends published most of her work posthumously. American poetry in the 19th century was rich and varied, ranging from the symbolic fantasies of Edgar Allan Poe through the moralistic quatrains of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow to the revolutionary free verse of Walt Whitman. In the privacy of her study Emily Dickinson developed her own forms and pursued her own visions, oblivious of literary fashions and unconcerned with the changing national literature. If she was influenced at all by other writers, they were John Keats, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Robert and Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Isaac Watts (his hymns), and the biblical prophets. Dickinson was born on Dec. 10, 1830, in Amherst, Mass., the eldest daughter of Edward Dickinson, a successful lawyer, member of Congress, and for many years treasurer of..... Extended Biography Text To be a poet was the sole ambition of Emily Dickinson. She achieved what she called her immortality by total commitment to the task, allowing nothing to deter her or intervene. Contrary to the myth that she would not deign to publish her verse, she made herculean efforts to reach out to a world that was not ready for the poems she offered; her manner and form were fifty years ahead of her time. The lines from James Russell Lowell's poem "The First Snowfall" are typical of popular taste in Dickinson's time; compare them with ones immediately following by Dickinson on the same subject (poem 311): The snow had begun in the gloaming, Had been heaping field and highway With a silence deep and white. Every pine and fir and hemlock Wore ermine too dear for an earl, And the poorest twig on the elm-tree Was ridged inch deep with pearl. From sheds new-roofed with Carrara Came Chanticleer's muffled crow, The stiff rails were softened to swan's down, And still fluttered down the snow. 1 stood and watched by the window The noiseless work of the sky, And the sudden flurried of snow-birds,

Gothic Art :: essays research papers

Romanesque may first be sensed in new structural developments.. Sophisticated but unsatisfactory attempts to vault the great basilican naves safely, with elements of Roman, Byzantine, or Eastern origin, impelled progressive Romanesque engineers, from about 1090 onward, to invent a new type of ribbed groin-vaulted unit bay, using pointed arches to distribute thrust and improve the shape of the geometric surfaces. Fifty years of experimentation produced vaulting that was light, strong, open, versatile, and applicable everywhere--in short, Gothic vaulting. A whole new aesthetic, with a new decorative system--the Gothic--was being evolved as early as 1145. The spatial forms of the new buildings sometimes caused acoustic difficulties, which may help to account for the concomitant development of the new polyphonic music that supplemented the traditional Romanesque plainsong. Romanesque architecture became old-fashioned, but its heavy forms pleased the Cistercian monks and, likewise, other conservative patrons in Germany, Poland, Hungary, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Thus, buildings that were essentially Romanesque in spirit continued to be built, even when such extraordinary Gothic works as the Amiens cathedral were under construction (begun 1220). (see also Index: Gothic architecture, music, history of) The development of proto-Romanesque in the Ottonian period culminated in the true Romanesque style represented by five magnificent churches on the international pilgrimage routes leading from central France to the reputed tomb of St. James at Santiago de Compostela in Spain: Saint-Martin at Tours (a huge once wooden-roofed basilica that was rebuilt on the new model beginning about 1050), Sainte-Foy at Conques ( c. 1052-1130), Saint-Martial at Limoges (c. 1062-95), Saint-Sernin at Toulouse (1077 or 1082-1118), and the new cathedral at Santiago de Compostela itself (c. 1075-1211). This was a real family of buildings; each one had a splendid apse with ambulatory (a sheltered place to walk) and radiating chapels, a transept and nave with aisles and galleries, an

Hong Kong Post-colonial Cinema Essay -- Post Colonial Hong Kong Cultur

The Construction of the ‘Western Other’ in Hong Kong Post-colonial Cinema Hong Kong has always remained a very unique city, one which is said to have ‘a Western past, an Eastern future’. Since its colonisation by the British in the 1860s, it has maintained to a very large extent its Chinese identity and its connection to its Motherland, while at the same time, has frequent contact with the Western world, politically, economically, and culturally. Hong Kong’s unique position has made the city a vibrant international metropolis that acts as a bridge between East and West. Yet after it was returned to China in 1997, this former British colony has been constantly reassessing its British past, struggling to find its new position and redefining its identity. The quest for identity quickly finds its place in the construction of the notion of ‘Hong Kong-ness’ in films. The local cinema has remained as a powerful cultural institution, both reflecting and intervening in the discourses of alterities and selfhood. It is therefore not surprising that in local films, the cinematic representations of Hong Kong have been seen as inextricably interwoven with the triangular relationship between the British coloniser, the Chinese motherland, and Hong Kong itself. Since its inception in the 1910s, the Hong Kong film industry has enjoyed much independence from colonial control, yet simultaneously much association with Western culture. Many films openly deal with the theme of ‘East meets West’ in which ‘Hong Kongese’ identity is often expressed in "transnational settings" against the existence of a Western Other, in particular through the portrayal of Westerners visiting Asia, and vice versa. After the handover, "H ong Kong" as a geopolitical en... ...a journey of discovery/rediscovery of what the Western world comes to mean, while at the same time, negotiating the redefinition of selfhood and national identity of Hong Kong. The will to search for a reconciliation with the West in these films is certainly deeply embedded in Hong Kong’s search for its own identity in the post-colonial era. After its return to its Chinese motherland, Hong Kong consequently takes up the important position as the bridge between China and the West. Many recognize that its success to find its identity as part of China in the future depends on its ability to come to terms with its colonial past. Indeed, as we have seen, both films positively insist on the possibility of fulfilling such an aspiration. The process is not a comfortable one, and it is often one of pain and risks. Yet the films assure that it is also one of promise and hope. Hong Kong Post-colonial Cinema Essay -- Post Colonial Hong Kong Cultur The Construction of the ‘Western Other’ in Hong Kong Post-colonial Cinema Hong Kong has always remained a very unique city, one which is said to have ‘a Western past, an Eastern future’. Since its colonisation by the British in the 1860s, it has maintained to a very large extent its Chinese identity and its connection to its Motherland, while at the same time, has frequent contact with the Western world, politically, economically, and culturally. Hong Kong’s unique position has made the city a vibrant international metropolis that acts as a bridge between East and West. Yet after it was returned to China in 1997, this former British colony has been constantly reassessing its British past, struggling to find its new position and redefining its identity. The quest for identity quickly finds its place in the construction of the notion of ‘Hong Kong-ness’ in films. The local cinema has remained as a powerful cultural institution, both reflecting and intervening in the discourses of alterities and selfhood. It is therefore not surprising that in local films, the cinematic representations of Hong Kong have been seen as inextricably interwoven with the triangular relationship between the British coloniser, the Chinese motherland, and Hong Kong itself. Since its inception in the 1910s, the Hong Kong film industry has enjoyed much independence from colonial control, yet simultaneously much association with Western culture. Many films openly deal with the theme of ‘East meets West’ in which ‘Hong Kongese’ identity is often expressed in "transnational settings" against the existence of a Western Other, in particular through the portrayal of Westerners visiting Asia, and vice versa. After the handover, "H ong Kong" as a geopolitical en... ...a journey of discovery/rediscovery of what the Western world comes to mean, while at the same time, negotiating the redefinition of selfhood and national identity of Hong Kong. The will to search for a reconciliation with the West in these films is certainly deeply embedded in Hong Kong’s search for its own identity in the post-colonial era. After its return to its Chinese motherland, Hong Kong consequently takes up the important position as the bridge between China and the West. Many recognize that its success to find its identity as part of China in the future depends on its ability to come to terms with its colonial past. Indeed, as we have seen, both films positively insist on the possibility of fulfilling such an aspiration. The process is not a comfortable one, and it is often one of pain and risks. Yet the films assure that it is also one of promise and hope.

Concept and Nature Essay

1. Introduction Chapter 1. Concept- a notion or statement of an idea 2. 1 A concept is a fundamental category of existence. 2. 2 Ð ¡oncepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. 2. 3 A concept is a common feature or characteristic 2. 4 The notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept 1. A general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrences. 2. Something formed in the mind; a thought or notion. See Synonyms at idea. 3. A scheme; a plan: â€Å"began searching for an agency to handle a new restaurant concept†(ADWEEK). 1. an idea, esp an abstract idea the concepts of biology 2. (Philosophy) Philosophy a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class 3. (Philosophy) Philosophy a. the conjunction of all the characteristic features of something b. a theoretical construct within some theory c. a directly intuited object of thought d. the meaning of a predicate 4. (Engineering / Automotive Engineering) (modifier) (of a product, esp a car) created as an exercise to demonstrate the technical skills and imagination of the designers, and not intended for mass production or sale [from Latin conceptum something received or conceived, from concipere to take in, conceive] A notion or statement of an idea, expressing how something might be done or accomplished, that may lead to an accepted procedure. concept noun idea, view, image, theory, impression, notion, conception, hypothesis, abstraction,conceptualization She added that the concept of arranged marriages is misunderstood in the west. World English Dictionary concept (? k? ns? pt) | | — n| 1. | idea, especially an abstract idea: the concepts of biology| 2. | philosophy a general idea or notion that corresponds to some classof entities and hat consists of the characteristic or essentialfeatures of the class| 3. | . philosophy| | a. the conjunction of all the characteristic features of something| | b. a theoretical construct within some theory| | c. a directly intuited object of thought| | d. the meaning of a predicate| 4.| ( modifier ) (of a product, esp a car) created as an exercise todemonstrate the technical skills and imagination of the designers,and not intended for mass production or sale| | [C16: from Latin conceptum something received or conceived, fromconcipere to take in, conceive ] A. In general usage the term mainly denotes ‘idea’ or ‘notion’. It is envisaged as an abstract or psychological thing presupposing conscious minds which at least potentially ‘have’ the concept, i. e. , understand it, operate with it, apply it, etc. In philosophy and the social sciences (and other sciences too) concepts enter as (a) the most general tools of inquiry as such and as (b) the content or object of some specific inquiries, notably in comparative studies. What follows refers principally to (a) rather than (b). The nature of concepts, and their relation to the things ‘of which they are the concepts’, and to the minds which use or contemplate them, are among the most hotly disputed subject in philosophy. The present definition is not intended to prejudge or settle any of these issues, even if limitations of space make it appear to do so. B. Defined as an aspect of thought, a concept is a kind of unit in terms of which one thinks; a unit smaller than a judgement, proposition, or theory, but one which necessarily enters into these. In an assertion, something is predicated of a concept, and the predicate itself can generally be re-described as a concept. At the same time, however, the concept is by no means an ultimate or indivisible unit, for concepts can be augmented or diminished by addition or subtraction of some feature. (For instance, one may say that someone’s concept of social class does, or fails to, include the notion of differences in material rewards. ) Moreover, while concepts occur within assertions or theories and are thus distinct from them, a proposition or theory or thesis as a whole can in turn be referred to as a further concept. For instance, R. Firth writes that ‘some of Dr. Leach’s concepts are of a special order†¦I refer to his thesis that seeking for power is the basis of social choice’ (Foreword to E. R. Leach, Political Systems of Highland Burma, London: G. Bell, 1954, p. vii). C. Concepts correspond to or ‘are the meaning of’ all meaningful words, with certain qualifications: (a) only one concept corresponds to two or more words with the same meaning; (b) there is a tendency to speak of concepts only with regard to words which do, or at least can, refer either to something that can exist or be imagined or to an operation that can be performed, and not in connection with words whose role is grammatical rather than designative (for instance, one may speak of the concept of sovereignty, of infinity, of addition, but not of the concept of ‘and’ – though one must add that the drawing of the lines beetween these kinds of meaning is difficult, unsettled, and controversial part of philosophy: (c) there is a tendency to speak of concepts in connection with general rather than singular terms (one is unlikely to speak of a ‘concpet of John’ or of a ‘concpet of London’; in those cases the term ‘conception’ is more likely to be used. There are, however, exceptions, e. g. , ‘the concept of God’). The fact that concepts may be seen as the meanings of terms should not lead one to suppose that concepts are in some narrow sense linguistic entities: although concepts may be defined in terms of the rules governing the use of the words said to designate them, those rules determine (a) what things in the world are classed together (as ‘falling’ under the same concept’), (b) what features are grouped together (as ‘being various characteristics of the same thing’), (c) what operations of measurement, classification, discrimination, etc. , are performed by the man ‘using the concept’, and so on. D. Discussions of concepts in the social sciences tend to be a matter of the choice of terms and, more importantly, of their definitions. One may talk both of discovering and of inventing concepts; also of changing and developing concepts. In as far as given theories require certain concepts, and in as far as concepts can be said to incorporate theories, there is no sharp line between choice of theories and choice of concepts. Nevertheless, whole theories are thought of primarily as true or false, concepts are more naturally described as applicable or inapplicable, valid or invalid, useful or useless. Taken from A Dictionary of the Social Sciences eds. J. Gould and W. Kolb, Free Press, 1964. Concept From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia In metaphysics, and especially ontology, a concept is a fundamental category of existence. In contemporary philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a concept is:[1] Concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities that exist in the brain. Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents. Concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents of propositions that mediate between thought, language, and referents. Concepts were born out of the rejection of some or all of the classical theory,[4] it seems appropriate to give an account of what might be wrong with this theory. In the 20th century, philosophers such as Rosch and Wittgenstein argued against the classical theory. There are six primary arguments[4] summarized as follows: It seems that there simply are no definitions – especially those based in sensory primitive concepts. [4] It seems as though there can be cases where our ignorance or error about a class means that we either don’t know the definition of a concept, or have incorrect notions about what a definition of a particular concept might entail. [4] Quine’s argument against analyticity in Two Dogmas of Empiricism also holds as an argument against definitions. [4] Some concepts have fuzzy membership. There are items for which it is vague whether or not they fall into (or out of) a particular referent class. This is not possible in the classical theory as everything has equal and full membership. [4] Rosch found typicality effects which cannot be explained by the classical theory of concepts, these sparked the prototype theory. [4] See below. Psychological experiments show no evidence for our using concepts as strict definitions. [4] Prototype theory Main article: Prototype theory Prototype theory came out of problems with the classical view of conceptual structure. [1] Prototype theory says that concepts specify properties that members of a class tend to possess, rather than must possess. [4] Wittgenstein, Rosch, Mervis, Berlin, Anglin and Posner are a few of the key proponents and creators of this theory. [4][5] Wittgenstein describes the relationship between members of a class as family resemblances. There are not necessarily any necessary conditions for membership, a dog can still be a dog with only three legs. [3] This view is particularly supported by psychological experimental evidence for prototypicality effects. [3] Participants willingly and consistently rate objects in categories like ‘vegetable’ or ‘furniture’ as more or less typical of that class. [3][5] It seems that our categories are fuzzy psychologically, and so this structure has explanatory power. [3] We can judge an item’s membership to the referent class of a concept by comparing it to the typical member – the most central member of the concept. If it is similar enough in the relevant ways, it will be cognitively admitted as a member of the relevant class of entities. [3] Rosch suggests that every category is represented by a central exemplar which embodies all or the maximum possible number of features of a given category. [3] Theory-theory Theory-theory is a reaction to the previous two theories and develops them further. [3] This theory postulates that categorization by concepts is something like scientific theorizing. [1] Concepts are not learned in isolation, but rather are learned as a part of our experiences with the world around us. [3] In this sense, concepts’ structure relies on their relationships to other concepts as mandated by a particular mental theory about the state of the world. [4] How this is supposed to work is a little less clear than in the previous two theories, but is still a prominent and notable theory. [4] This is supposed to explain some of the issues of ignorance and error that come up in prototype and classical theories as concepts that are structured around each other seem to account for errors such as whale as a fish (this misconception came from an incorrect theory about what a whale is like, combining with our theory of what a fish is). [4] When we learn that a whale is not a fish, we are recognizing that whales don’t in fact fit the theory we had about what makes something a fish. In this sense, the Theory-Theory of concepts is responding to some of the issues of prototype theory and classic theory. [4] Issues in concept theory A priori concepts Main articles: A priori and a posteriori and Category (Kant) Kant declared that human minds possess pure or a priori concepts. Instead of being abstracted from individual perceptions, like empirical concepts, they originate in the mind itself. He called these concepts categories, in the sense of the word that means predicate, attribute, characteristic, or quality. But these pure categories are predicates of things in general, not of a particular thing. According to Kant, there are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that one predicate which is common to multiple empirical concepts. In order to explain how an a priori concept can relate to individual phenomena, in a manner analogous to an a posteriori concept, Kant employed the technical concept of the schema. Immanuel Kant held that the account of the concept as an abstraction of experience is only partly correct. He called those concepts that result from abstraction â€Å"a posteriori concepts† (meaning concepts that arise out of experience). An empirical or an a posteriori concept is a general representation (Vorstellung) or non-specific thought of that which is common to several specific perceived objects (Logic, I, 1. ,  §1, Note 1) A concept is a common feature or characteristic. Kant investigated the way that empirical a posteriori concepts are created. The logical acts of the understanding by which concepts are generated as to their form are: comparison, i. e. , the likening of mental images to one another in relation to the unity of consciousness; reflection, i. e. , the going back over different mental images, how they can be comprehended in one consciousness; and finally abstraction or the segregation of everything else by which the mental images differ †¦ In order to make our mental images into concepts, one must thus be able to compare, reflect, and abstract, for these three logical operations of the understanding are essential and general conditions of generating any concept whatever. For example, I see a fir, a willow, and a linden. In firstly comparing these objects, I notice that they are different from one another in respect of trunk, branches, leaves, and the like; further, however, I reflect only on what they have in common, the trunk, the branches, the leaves themselves, and abstract from their size, shape, and so forth; thus I gain a concept of a tree. Embodied content Main article: Embodied cognition In cognitive linguistics, abstract concepts are transformations of concrete concepts derived from embodied experience. The mechanism of transformation is structural mapping, in which properties of two or more source domains are selectively mapped onto a blended space (Fauconnier & Turner, 1995; see conceptual blending). A common class of blends are metaphors. This theory contrasts with the rationalist view that concepts are perceptions (or recollections, in Plato’s term) of an independently existing world of ideas, in that it denies the existence of any such realm. It also contrasts with the empiricist view that concepts are abstract generalizations of individual experiences, because the contingent and bodily experience is preserved in a concept, and not abstracted away. While the perspective is compatible with Jamesian pragmatism, the notion of the transformation of embodied concepts through structural mapping makes a distinct contribution to the problem of concept formation. [citation needed] Ontology Plato was the starkest proponent of the realist thesis of universal concepts. By his view, concepts (and ideas in general) are innate ideas that were instantiations of a transcendental world of pure forms that lay behind the veil of the physical world. In this way, universals were explained as transcendent objects. Needless to say this form of realism was tied deeply with Plato’s ontological projects. This remark on Plato is not of merely historical interest. For example, the view that numbers are Platonic objects was revived by Kurt Godel as a result of certain puzzles that he took to arise from the phenomenological accounts. Gottlob Frege, founder of the analytic tradition in philosophy, famously argued for the analysis of language in terms of sense and reference. For him, the sense of an expression in language describes a certain state of affairs in the world, namely, the way that some object is presented. Since many commentators view the notion of sense as identical to the notion of concept, and Frege regards senses as the linguistic representations of states of affairs in the world, it seems to follow that we may understand concepts as the manner in which we grasp the world. Accordingly, concepts (as senses) have an ontological status (Morgolis:7) According to Carl Benjamin Boyer, in the introduction to his The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development, concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the derivative and the integral are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious limits in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained. Etymology The term â€Å"concept† is traced back to 1554–60 (Latin conceptum – â€Å"something conceived†), but what is today termed â€Å"the classical theory of concepts† is the theory of Aristotle on the definition of terms. [citation needed] The meaning of â€Å"concept† is explored in mainstream information science, cognitive science, metaphysics, and philosophy of mind. In computer and information science contexts, especially, the term ‘concept’ is often used in unclear or inconsistent ways. When writing on the idea of nature as both stable in meaning and of the exchangeability of nature for other conceptualizations in written works, one should probably define nature in a definite way as to allow for comparisons in meaning. When seeking to define nature, whether it be of a human sort or any other, one must consider the parts to fully understand the whole. Everything must have a nature. If nothing had a nature, would that mean nature as we think of it would cease to exists? Or would we have another name for it? When seeking to define â€Å"nature†, there are a few routes to consider. Does a bear have a personality or a nature? Or both? When a bear frolics and plays, is that personality or nature? When it hibernates, is that personality or nature? For the sake of this argument, we shall say that when a bear happens to be frolicking and playing, he is doing so in a certain style, or way that is unique to that bear that sets him apart from his fellows, but not so much so that it alienates him from all bears. From there, we will assume this is because its personality allows it to. When it hibernates, it is because nature forces it to. Nature therefore is uniform; it has no uniqueness within bear kind. So establishing that a bear has a personality and a nature, what does this mean for criticism? Often in our readings we see references to nature, such as Mother Nature, human nature, the nature of plays and poetry, and so on and so forth. The question then, is what does a critic refer to when he says â€Å"nature†? Is he referring to hibernation? Or has he meant that nature is all-encompassing, referring to all actions of the bear as nature? As we have defined an instance of personality and nature within the inner workings of the bear, likewise must be done within the workings of criticism. In An Essay of Dramatic Poesy John Dryden states that a play â€Å"ought to be, a just and lively image of human nature, representing its passions and humors, and the changes of fortune to which it is subject; for the delight and instruction of mankind. † When he mentions â€Å"human nature† here, he is referring to many things at once. He is connecting the emotions one feels (passion and humors), that could easily be said to be part of an individual’s personality, as well as the commonality we all share in that there are no unique emotions to any one person. No one person has only felt happiness their whole life, nor has anyone not experience happiness at all. Dryden’s mention of â€Å"the changes of fortune† requires the alteration of the definition of â€Å"nature† we have thus far defined. When considering the bear, we didn’t count events in the bear’s life as part of his nature or personality. One can, however, predict what the bear will do in a life-changing event based on what we know of his nature. When it beings to get colder, a bear, as mandated by his bear nature, will forage for food to prepare for hibernation. When winter comes he will find a cave and hibernate. So when Dryden says â€Å"the change of fortune to which it is subject,† it can be assumed he means that human nature will react in a certain and specific and mostly predictable way to changes in the fictional character’s life. This means we can add an element of predictability and stability of actions to the definition of nature, with any variation given to personality. Dryden then turns to the notion of imitation. He speaks of imitating the ancient Greeks, who were imitators of nature. He speaketh: â€Å"Those Ancients have been faithful imitators and wise observers of that nature which is so torn and ill represented in our plays[. ]† This statement leads us to believe that nature is something to be observed and imitated. Therefore if one wanted to correctly portray a day in the life of our bear, he would watch the bear play, fish, sleep, and ect. The artist would then consider all of this as the bear’s nature, and imitate it on the stage or on paper in a story. The same process is therefore used when seeking to observe human nature. The poet, the playwright, the artist and novelist must be vigilant, claims Dryden, when observing so that when it is time to imitate, he can do so accurately. Aristotle, of the aforementioned Ancients, also discussed at great length the importance of the imitation of nature in art in his essay Poetics . Aristotlestates: Speaking generally, the origin of the art of poetry is to be found in two natural causes. For the process of imitation is natural to mankind from childhood on: Man is differentiated from other animals because he is the most imitative of them, and he learns his first lessons through imitation, and we observe that all men find pleasure in imitations. Imitation is considered here by Aristotle to be natural to mankind, even being so bold as to claim only humans learn from imitation. This natural tendency to imitate therefore leads us to find pleasure in observing imitations as well the act of imitation itself. Aristotle then incorporates â€Å"imitation† as a part of human nature, meaning that the action of imitation and the enjoyment of imitation is something all humans participate in, much in the way all bears hibernate in the winter. Aristotle continues by saying: Since imitation is given to us by nature[†¦]men, having been naturally endowed with these gifts from the beginning and then developing them gradually, for the most part, finally created the art of poetry from their early improvisations. Poetry then diverged in the directions of the natural dispositions of the poets. At this point, Aristotle’s notion of â€Å"nature† gets a little vague. First he states that imitation comes to mankind naturally. As he continues, however, he states that imitation is then developed, like a skill not an instinct. This concept evolves further to say that only the likes of poets become masters of imitation. Poets are unique in their ability to portray the observations of imitations they see. This uniqueness removes them from our definition of what is natural and applies to humans as a species, as Aristotle claims earlier. What Aristotle is applying here is another version of nature that is microsphere-ish to an individual, hence personality. Aristotle does not make this distinction what-so-ever. If imitation comes naturally to mankind as a whole, yet poetry only comes naturally to the disposition of poets, what exactly does that mean when defining nature? It means the terms â€Å"nature† and â€Å"naturally† in this passage needs footnotes. Perhaps when looking at this passage in terms of the way the words â€Å"nature† and â€Å"naturally† are used, Aristotle first uses it to refer to a universal characteristic shared by all humans: imitation. When refereeing to the poet, however, the definition changes slightly to refer to only poets, as though they are their own sub-species. An equivalent statement would be â€Å"All bears hibernate, but black bears hibernate the best. † Longinus also had an opinion of nature in his work On The Sublime. A lofty tone, says one, is innate, and does not come by teaching; nature is the only are that can compass it. Works of nature are, they think, made worse and altogether feebler when wizened by the rules of art. But I maintain that this will be found to be otherwise if it be observed that, while nature as a rule is free and independent in matters of passion and elevation, yet is she wont not to act at random and utterly without system. Further, nature is the original and vital underlying principle in all cases, but system can define limits and fitting seasons, and can also contribute the safest rules for use and practice. Longinus starts his argument out by saying what others have been saying: that the ability to write well comes from a persons’ natural talent; one that is born and not cultivated. Moreover, art is less sublime when confined to rules of art. Longinus argues this point, saying that if one truly observes an artist, they will find that while a natural born talent is a key principle, there is a system and structure to what is considered good art that is outside of nature’s control, which is contrary to the believe stated first. Longinus continues his argument by saying: This we may apply to diction, nature occupying the position of good fortune, art that of good counsel. Most important of all, we must remember that the very fact that there are some elements of expression which are in the hands of nature alone, can be learnt from no other sources than art. Longinus argues that ultimately nature is a catalyst for creation but does not play a role when judging if what has been created is worthy enough to be considered art. Yet in the next statement, he gives nature, the credit for the elements of expression that are observed and imitated in art to gain a better understanding of nature itself. When it comes to critiquing art, Dryden’s argument in An Essay of Dramatic Poesy is that in order for a work of art to be art, it must be the closet to actual nature. â€Å"Ancients have been faithful imitators and wise observers of that nature which is so torn and ill represented in our plays; they have handed down to us a perfect resemblance of her; which we, like ill copiers, neglecting to look on, have rendered monstrous, and disfigured. † When plays or writings don’t give an exact replication of nature, or even what is considered human nature, it loses value. It cannot be considered good art. The Greeks gave us examples of what good art is with their philosophies and ideas about nature and human nature. One advantage Dryden mentions his time period has over the Greeks is the advancement of science. He says: Is it not evident, in these last hundred years (when the study of philosophy has been the business of all the virtuosi in Christendom) that almost a new nature has been revealed to us? That more errors of the school have been detected, more useful experiments in philosophy have been made, more noble secrets in optics, medicine, anatomy, astronomy, discovered, than in all those credulous and doting ages from Aristotle to us? O true it is that nothing spreads more fast than science, when rightly and generally cultivated. As far as Dryden is concerned, that while many virtuous men have been focusing on philosophy, the times since Aristotle have changed. The invention of the microscope and the discovery of cells have altered how the natural world is viewed. There is more to everything in nature that meets the eye. He notes that worthy experiments in philosophy have been made, but that the rapid expanse of information generated by science has eclipsed those of philosophy. As there are no such references to science in regards to philosophy in Aristotle’s time, the philosopher of today must make his own way in regards to managing the way sciences has changed our view of nature. But what does science have to do with philosophy and art? The answer lies in the nature of art to reflect and imitate nature. Now that the secrets of optics, medicine, anatomy, and astronomy have been revealed, our human nature takes these secrets in. Philosophy now must contend and compromise with how these advancements fit into the human condition. The â€Å"new nature† must be negotiated with in terms of how it affects our lives. And of course science gives imitators a new genera in which to work. Painters can now paint the surgeon at work, perhaps teaching pupils. Once something becomes a natural experience, including that of science, it is to be imitated by poets. Nature, in its ever shifting meanings, does seem to have one consistent idea contributed to it, despite the technicalities. It can refer to the literal, organic substances that make up the vegetation, animals, and mankind in the world around us. It can also mean the behavior exhibited by said organic beings, such as the hibernation of bears. It has also been used to describe the emotions and other commonalties experienced by humans as a whole. Aristotle and Dryden have made it clear that within mankind there are certain characteristics attributed by nature, such as the observation and imitation of that which is around us. Simply put, it is in our nature to imitate nature. However, this definition of nature is refined when it comes under the consideration of art. While all of mankind takes delight in imitation, nature has endowed the artist, like say the poet, with a more natural and superior sense of imitation. When it comes to critiquing art of any sort, knowledge and a developed set of skills replaces nature according to Longinus. The act of imitating and creating may have natural causes, but the ability to ascribe worth to these creations can only come from a refined sense of what is makes good art, something that is not obtained from nature. In Dryden’s opinion, only the closest of imitations of nature are art. He also relies on the philosophy and insight into human nature of the ancient Greeks to guide what is valuable when it comes to art. Dryden makes the effort to include science in his argument by stating that science has discovered a â€Å"new nature† that will be observed and imitated and philosophized that the Greeks had no knowledge of. Nature, therefore, is still evolving, as will our concept of the many definitions of Nature. The idea of nature is one of the most widely employed in philosophy, and by the same token one of the most ill-defined. Authors such as Aristotle and Descartes relied on the concept of nature to explain the fundamental tenets of their views, without ever attempting to define the concept. Even in contemporary philosophy, the idea is oftentimes employed, in different forms. So, what is nature? Nature and the Essence of a Thing The philosophical tradition that traces back to Aristotle employs the idea of nature to explain that which defines the essence of a thing. One of the most fundamental metaphysical concepts, the essence indicates those properties that define what a thing is. The essence of water, for instance, will be its molecular structure, the essence of a species, its ancestral history; the essence of a human, its self-consciousness or its soul. Within the Aristotelian traditions, hence, to act in accordance with nature means to take into account the real definition of each thing when dealing with it. The Natural World At times the idea of nature is instead used to refer to anything that exists in the universe as part of the physical world. In this sense, the idea embraces anything that falls under the study of the natural sciences, from physics to biology to environmental studies. Natural vs. Artificial â€Å"Natural† is often used also to refer to a process which occurs spontaneously as opposed to one that occurs as the result of the deliberation of a being. Thus, a plant grows naturally when its growth was not planned by a rational agent; it grows otherwise artificially. An apple, would hence be an artificial product, under this understanding of the idea of nature, although most would agree that an apple is a product of nature (that is, a part of the natural world, that which is studied by natural scientists). Nature vs. Nurture Related to the spontaneity vs. artificiality divide is the idea of nature as opposed to nurture.